GRAFTING FRUIT
TREES
To accompany this article there are two Fact-sheets
that I've compiled which are available for you to download:
 |
Fruit Trees -
Rootstock Guide |
 |
 |
 |
Fruit Trees - Pollination Guide |
|
I was fascinated
by grafting when I was a boy at Tregaron County School, and
got taught the basic (?black art?) theory about such things
by dear old Mr Lewis - in what was called "Rural Science
Studies" (RSS) in those days.
Mr Lewis was an unassuming
ex RAF Spitfire pilot and one of the nicest and most
genuinely humble teachers that I've ever had the
pleasure to meet.
Rural
science mostly involved horticultural studies and we got a taste
of it for one double lesson once a week. It was one of those
early post war subject
that was taught to all children in order to heighten everyone's knowledge about growing food - in case we
experienced another war I presume! The school even had a big
vegetable garden with a high chain link fence around it - so
that we could practice in the day but not return later to take
our efforts home to Mam!
 It later got dropped
from the curriculum, after all the fears that had sprung up from WW2 food shortages had
calmed down and the panic had subsided (about 25 years after
the end of that particular war in 1945!).
Personally I think they should bring it back for our
children in this modern world we now live in - (RSS that is -
not war!). It was one of the
best - and, for me, one of the most interesting & practical subjects possible for youngsters.
Not only should RSS be brought back, but along with
it wood-work and domestic science (cooking & needle-work). The
governments since the war, in my view, should also have
perpetuated the "Dig for Victory" campaign (not that
I can remember that one myself - being a product of
the early 50s!). They should have kept it and called it something else
more sexy, like "survival post capital collapse!".
Perhaps "sexy" is not the word I'm looking for
there!
I was totally engrossed in
the techniques and methods of making one plant grow from another
(perhaps it's due to the Dr Frankenstein that lurks inside most of us -
especially when we were young boys). More especially the thought
of being able to grow different varieties of apples on the same
tree was even more intriguing!
I always used to come close
to, if not top of the
class in RSS during most school terms - perhaps that's where I should have concentrated my
efforts, rather than becoming an electronics engineer as a
professional first, and an amateur vegetable gardener on an allotment
plot second. I dropped RSS somewhere along my educational journey
through school - in preference
for the more academic subject of Physics & some other more "modern"
science offerings. However the old school's textbook diagrams of "Whip &
Tongue" & "Saddle" grafts have stayed with me as an image in my
memory to this day.
Few of us get a lot of
opportunity to do fruit tree grafting on a regular basis - unless you
happen own
an orchard. Or if you hire yourself out as a professional grafter
to more timid fruit tree growers, who subscribe to the old myth
that grafting is a complicated and ticklish procedure, that can
only be accomplished by someone with the intellect & the steady hand of a brain
surgeon (hence why I called it a "black art" above). In reality
nothing is further from the truth! It's not a "black" art at
all. Grafting your own trees is
very easy once you know the basics. The science behind grafting
however is fascinating.
Why Graft?
A good
question to which there is a VERY simple answer!
To those gardeners amongst
us who are used to starting all their crops from seed, it may
come as a surprise to learn that fruit trees are NOT grown from
seeds (or pips as they are called) but are, in fact,
grafted. This may seem a very unnatural concept, but
there's a very good reason for it - and the answer again goes
back to your school biology lessons.
Like us
humans, the pips (or stones) produced by a fruit tree are unique
to that particular tree, it is the only one of it's kind in the
world and it's characteristics are a random mix of it's parents'
genes. Exactly like us humans. The embryos produced that
eventually grow into adult humans by two parents will always be
unique. So you could have a fantastic new variety of apple
created from a tree grown from a pip, or you could land up with
something which is totally useless. In other words it's a
lottery.
A fruit tree supplied from a
nursery consists of two parts, the scion
(the fruiting wood) which makes up most of the tree that you see
above ground-level, and the rootstock
which - as the name suggests - is the root & lower trunk. The
join or "union" is easy to spot in a young tree - it is the kink
a few inches above the ground where the scion was grafted on to
the rootstock.
This
marriage works because rootstocks are very closely related to
scions - thus apple rootstocks are apple varieties in their own
right, but where the main attribute is not fruit flavour but the
overall vigour and eventual tree size. Plum rootstocks can also
be used for apricots and peaches, which shows just how closely
these species are related. Most rootstocks will produce edible
fruit if left to grow naturally, but the fruit is usually small
and poorly flavoured.
To guarantee the outcome of
your fruit producing tree, a length of scion wood is grafted on
to a rootstock. The scion has been cut from a known variety. You
are in effect cloning the original and implanting it on to a
donor tree. The result is you have a tree that will produce the
exact fruit you expected, but it grows on it's "surrogate
mother" -the rootstock that it was originally grafted on to! You
can even graft more than one variety on to the same rootstock -
how cool is that?
This process is really
cloning at horticultural level, and it's been
going on for a LONG time Grafting with detached scions has been
practiced for thousands of years. It was in use by the Chinese
before 2000 BC, and then spread to the rest of Eurasia. The
practice was almost commonplace in ancient Greece. Without the
development of grafting, heterosexual fruit trees such as apples
and cherries would never have been domesticated, as their
natural sexual reproductive method prevents useful genes from
being passed on consistently.
Isn't that amazing? I
certainly think so! Anyway let's get down to the nitty gritty of
this "black art"!
An Introduction to Grafting
Most apple trees are produced by
grafting the required variety (the "scion") on to a rootstock.
The main reason for doing this is because the natural vigour
(from low to high) of the rootstock helps to control the size of
the mature apple tree. However rootstocks also confer other
advantages and disadvantages.
The following table lists apple
rootstocks in ascending order (1 - 5 with five being the most
vigorous) giving an approximate
indication of what the expected size of the mature apple tree
would be.
|
Rootstock Types & Habits |
|
 |
|
Very
Small
6ft
/2m |
Small
8ft/2.5m |
 Medium
10ft / 3m |
 Large
14ft/4m |
 Very
Large
18ft / 5m |
|
Type
Ref.
(name) |
Type
Ref.
(name) |
Type
Ref.
(name) |
Type
Ref.
(name) |
Type
Ref.
(name) |
|
P22,
M27,
G65 |
M9,
Bud. 9,
G16
Mark |
G11,
M26,
G202,
G30,
MM102,
MM111/G11
M7 |
M116,
MM106 |
MM111,
Bud. 118,
M25 |
|
The most widely-used
rootstock in Europe in the 19th century was called
Paradise. During the 1920s researchers at East Malling
Research Station in the UK were the first to classify
rootstocks and develop new ones for specific purposes.
One of their first rootstocks was "M9", which was
developed from Paradise and another variety called
"Jaune de Metz". (It is possible that "Jaune" refers to
the golden yellow bark of this rootstock). Apple trees
grown on M9 rootstocks are small, and they fruit very
early in life - making this an ideal rootstock for
commercial apple orchards, and it is indeed probably the
most widely-planted of all rootstocks. East Malling
Research Station, in conjunction with some other UK
research stations at Merton and Long Ashton developed a
range of virus-free rootstocks of which M27, M9, M26,
MM106, M7, MM111, and M25 are in widespread use today.
Note that the numbers in the East Malling series have no
relation to the size of the tree - M27 and M26 produce
trees which are respectively smaller and larger than M9! |
The table above should not be
taken too literally. The ultimate size of a fruit tree -
its mature height and spread - is affected by many
characteristics. Local climate, soil conditions, and the species
(apple, plum, cherry and so on) all play a part. Within species
some varieties naturally tend to grow more vigorously than
others. Bramley's Seedling apple trees for example tend to be
bigger and stronger than Rubinette apple trees. However the most
significant factor in the ultimate size of your fruit tree is
its rootstock.
Furthermore, although
we have created discrete size bands for convenience, in practice
the performance of different rootstocks overlaps considerably.
When
to Graft
Unlike
budding, (which I'll focus on in another news-letter some time
in the future) which can be performed before or during the growing
season, most grafting is done during winter and early spring
while both scion and rootstock are still dormant (by the time
you get this newsletter it will probably be a little late to do
it this year). Containerized plants may be moved indoors during
the actual grafting process; after grafting, these plants are
placed in protected areas or in unheated over-wintering houses.
Field-grown stock, of course, must be grafted in place. Some
deciduous trees are commonly grafted as bare rootstock during
the winter and stored until spring planting. Indoor winter
grafting is often referred to as bench grafting because it is
accomplished at a bench.
Selecting
and Handling Scion Wood
The best
quality scion wood usually comes from shoots grown the previous
season. Select short lengths about the diameter (and about the
length) of a pencil. In some areas the collected scion wood is
often called “pencils” for this reason. Scions should be severed
with sharp, clean shears or knives and placed immediately in
moistened burlap or plastic bags. It is good practice during the
harvesting of scions and the making of grafts to clean the
cutting tools regularly. This may be done by flaming or
immersing them in a sterilizing solution. Isopropyl (rubbing)
alcohol also works well as a sterilent, although it evaporates
quite readily. An alternative sterilizing solution may be
prepared by mixing one part household bleach with nine parts
water (by volume). However, this bleach solution can be highly
corrosive to certain metals. Another sterilizing fluid that can
be used, and which is easily available is Mentholated Spirits.
For best
results, harvest only as much scion wood as can be used for
grafting during the same day. Select only healthy scion wood
that is free from insect, disease, or winter damage. Be sure the
stock plants are of good quality, healthy, and true to type.
Scion wood that is frozen at harvest often knits more slowly and
in lower percentage. If large quantities of scion wood must be
harvested at one time, follow these steps:
-
Cut all
scions to a uniform length,
-
Keep
their basal ends together, and tie them in bundles of known
quantity (for example, 20 scions per bundle).
-
Label
them, recording the cultivar, date of harvest, and location
of the stock plant.
-
Wrap the
base of the bundles in moistened burlap or sphagnum, place
them in polyethylene or waterproof paper bags, and seal the
bags.
-
Store
the bundles for short periods, if necessary, either iced
down in insulated coolers or in a fridge at 0o –
1o C (32o to 34o F)
-
Never
store scions in refrigerated units where fruits or
vegetables are currently kept or have been stored recently.
Stored fruits and vegetables release ethylene gas, which can
cause woody plant buds to abort, making the scions useless.
-
Keep
the scions from freezing during storage.
NOTE: In
grafting, as well as budding, the vascular cambium of the scion
or bud must be aligned with the vascular cambium of rootstock.
In woody plants the cambium is a very thin ribbon of actively
dividing cells located just below the bark. The cambium produces
conductive tissue for the actively growing plant (Figure 1).
This vascular cambium initiates callus tissue at the graft and
bud unions in addition to stimulating tissue growth on the basal
ends of many vegetative cuttings before they have rooted.
Figure 1.
Cross section of a
woody plant stem.
Types of
Grafts
Nurserymen can choose from a number of different types of
grafts. This section describes only those basic types of grafts
used on nursery crop plants.
Cleft Graft
One of
the simplest and most popular forms of grafting, cleft grafting
(Figure 2), is a method for top working both flowering and
fruiting trees (apples, cherries, pears, and peaches) in order
to change varieties. Cleft grafting is also used to propagate
varieties of camellias that are difficult to root. This type of
grafting is usually done during the winter and early spring
while both scion and rootstock are still dormant. Cleft grafting
may be performed on main stems or on lateral or scaffold
branches.
The
rootstock used for cleft grafting should range from 1 to 4
inches in diameter and should be straight grained. The scion
should be about 1/4 inch in diameter, straight, and long enough
to have at least three buds. Scions that are between 6 and 8
inches long are usually the easiest to use.
Figure 2.
Cleft graft.
Preparing the Rootstock.
The stock
should be sawed off with a clean, smooth cut perpendicular to
the main axis of the stem to be grafted. Using a clefting tool
wedge and a mallet, make a split or "cleft" through the
centre
of the stock and down 2 to 3 inches. Remove the clefting tool
wedge and drive the pick end of the tool into the centre of the
newly made cleft so that the stock can be held open while
inserting the scion.
Preparing the Scion.
In cleft
grafting, one scion is usually inserted at each end of the
cleft, so prepare two scions for each graft. Select scions that
have three or four good buds. Using a sharp, clean grafting
knife, start near the base of the lowest bud and make two
opposing smooth-tapered cuts 1 to 2 inches long toward the basal
end of the scion. Cut the side with the lowest bud slightly
thicker than the opposite side. Be sure the basal end of the
scion gradually tapers off along both sides.
Inserting the Scion.
Insert a scion on each end of the cleft, with the wider side of
the wedge facing outward. The cambium of each scion should
contact the cambium of the rootstock.
Securing the Graft.
Remove
the clefting tool from the cleft so that the rootstock can
close. Pressure from the rootstock will hold the scions in
place. Thoroughly seal all cut surfaces with grafting wax or
grafting paint to keep out water and prevent drying. If both
scions in the cleft "take," one will usually grow more rapidly
than the other. After the first growing season, choose the
stronger scion and prune out the weaker.
NOTE: The
temperature of grafting wax is critical. It must be hot enough
to flow but not so hot as to kill plant tissue. Recently,
paint-like sealants have replaced wax in many areas because they
are easier to use and require no heating.
Rind or Bark Graft
Bark
grafting (Figure 3) is used primarily to top work flowering and
fruiting trees. In contrast to cleft grafting, this technique
can be applied to rootstock of larger diameter (4 to 12 inches)
and is done during early spring when the bark slips easily from
the wood but before major sap flow. The rootstock is severed
with a sharp saw, leaving a clean cut as with cleft grafting.
Figure 3.
Bark graft.
Preparing the Stock.
Start at
the cut surface of the rootstock and make a vertical slit
through the bark where each scion can be inserted (2 inches long
and spaced 1 inch apart).
Preparing the Scion.
Since
multiple scions are usually inserted around the cut surface of
the rootstock, prepare several scions for each graft. Cut the
base of each scion to a 1 ½- to 2-inch tapered wedge on one side
only.
Inserting the Scion.
Loosen
the bark slightly and insert the scion so that the wedge-shaped
tapered surface of the scion is against the exposed wood under
the flap of bark. Push the scion firmly down into place behind
the flap of bark, replace the bark flap, and nail the scion in
place by driving one or two wire brads through the bark and
scion into the rootstock. Insert a scion every 3 to 4 inches
around the cut perimeter of the rootstock.
Securing the Graft.
Seal all
exposed surfaces with grafting wax or grafting paint. Once the
scions have begun to grow, leave only the most vigorous one on
each stub; prune out all the others. Bark grafts tend to form
weak unions and therefore usually require staking or support
during the first few years.
Side-Veneer Graft
At one
time the side-veneer graft (Figure 4) was a popular technique
for grafting varieties of camellias and rhododendrons that are
difficult to root. Currently, it is the most popular way to
graft conifers, especially those having a compact or dwarf form.
Side-veneer grafting is usually done on potted rootstock.
Fig. 4 Side
veneer graft
Preparing the Stock.
Rootstock
is grown in pots the season before grafting, allowed to go
dormant, and then stored as with other container nursery stock.
After exposure to cold weather for at least six weeks, the
rootstock is brought into a cool greenhouse for a few days
before grafting takes place to encourage renewed root growth.
The plant should not be watered at this time.
Make a
shallow downward cut about 3/4 inch to 1 inch long at the base
of the stem on the potted rootstock to expose a flap of bark
with some wood still attached. Make an inward cut at the base so
that the flap of bark and wood can be removed from the
rootstock.
Preparing the Scion.
Choose a scion with a diameter the same as or slightly smaller
than the rootstock. Make a sloping cut 3/4 to 1 inch long at the
base of the scion. (Use the bark grafting technique shown in
Figure 3.)
Inserting the Scion.
Insert the cut surface of the scion against the cut surface of
the rootstock. Be certain that the cambia contact each other.
Securing the Graft.
Hold the scion in place using a rubber grafting strip, tape, or
grafting twine. Seal the entire graft area with warm grafting
wax or grafting paint. Remove the rubber or twine shortly after
the union has healed. Never allow the binding material to girdle
the stem.
Splice Graft
Splice
grafting (Figure 5) is used to join a scion onto the stem of a
rootstock or onto an intact root-piece. This simple method is
usually applied to herbaceous materials that callus or "knit"
easily, or it is used on plants with a stem diameter of 1/2 inch
or less. In splice grafting, both the stock and scion must be of
the same diameter.
Figure 5.
Splice graft.
Preparing the Stock and Scion.
Cut off
the rootstock using a diagonal cut 3/4 to 1 inch long. Make the
same type of cut at the base of the scion.
Inserting the Scion.
Fit the
scion to the stock. Wrap this junction securely with a rubber
grafting strip or twine.
Securing the Graft.
Seal the
junction with grafting wax or grafting paint. Water rootstock
sparingly until the graft knits. Over watering may cause sap to
"drown" the scion. Be sure to remove the twine or strip as soon
as the graft has healed.
Whip and Tongue Graft
The whip
and tongue technique (Figure 6) is most commonly used to graft
nursery crops or woody ornamentals. Both the rootstock and scion
should be of equal size and preferably no more than 1/2 inch in
diameter. The technique is similar to splice grafting except
that the whip on the rootstock holds the tongue of the scion in
place (and vice versa). This leaves both hands free to wrap the
joint.
For the
whip and tongue graft, make similar cuts on both the stock and
scion. These cuts should be made with a single draw of the knife
and should have a smooth surface so that the two can develop a
good graft union. Up to this point, rootstock and scion are cut
the same as for a splice graft.
Figure 6.
Whip and tongue graft.
Preparing the Stock and Scion.
Cut off
the stock using a diagonal cut. The cut should be four to five
times longer than the diameter of the stock to be grafted. Make
the same kind of cut at the base of the scion.
Next,
place the blade of the knife across the cut end of the stock,
halfway between the bark and pith (on the upper part of the cut
surface). Use a single knife stroke to draw the blade down at an
angle through the wood and pith. Stop at the base of the initial
diagonal cut. This second cut must not follow the grain of the
wood but should run parallel to the first cut.
Inserting the Scion.
Prepare
the scion in the same way. Fit the scion into the rootstock so
that they interlock whip and tongue. Be certain that the cambia
are aligned.
Securing the Graft.
Wrap the junction with a grafting strip or twine, and seal it
with grafting wax or grafting paint. Never allow the binding
material to girdle the stem.
Saddle Graft
Saddle
grafting (Figure 7) is a relatively easy technique to learn and
once mastered can be performed quite rapidly. The stock may be
either field-grown or potted. Both rootstock and scion should be
the same diameter. For best results, use saddle grafting on
dormant stock in mid- to late winter. Stock should not be more
than 1 inch in diameter.
Figure 7.
Saddle graft.
Preparing the Stock.
Using two
opposing upward strokes of the grafting knife, sever the top
from the rootstock. The resulting cut should resemble an
inverted V, with the surface of the cuts ranging from 1/2 to 1
inch long.
Preparing the Scion.
Now
reverse the technique to prepare the base of the scion. These
cuts on the rootstock and scion must be the same length and have
the same slope so that a maximum amount of cambial tissue will
make contact when the two halves are joined.
Inserting the Scion.
Place the
V-notched scion onto the saddle of the rootstock. If rootstock
and scion are the same diameter, cambial alignment is easier;
otherwise adjust as needed.
Securing the Graft.
Wrap the
graft with a grafting twine, tape, or strip, then seal it with
grafting wax or grafting paint.
All of
the preceding techniques are used to top work horticultural
crops for a particular purpose. Occasionally, however, grafting
is used to repair injured or diseased plants. Two common
techniques available for this purpose are bridge grafting and
inarch grafting.
Bridge Graft
Bridge
grafting (Figure 8) is used to "bridge" a diseased or damaged
area of a plant, usually at or near the base of the trunk. Such
damage commonly results from contact with grading or lawn
maintenance equipment, or it may be caused by rodents, cold
temperatures, or disease organisms. The bridge graft provides
support as well as a pipeline that allows water and nutrients to
move across the damaged area.
Bridge
grafts are usually done in early spring just before active plant
growth begins. They may be performed any time the bark on the
injured plant "slips."
Figure 8.
Bridge graft.
Preparing the Scion.
Select
scions that are straight and about twice as long as the damaged
area to be bridged. Make a 1 1/2- to 2-inch-long tapered cut on
the same plane at each end of the scion.
Preparing the Stock.
Remove
any damaged tissue so the graft is on healthy stems. Cut a flap
in the bark on the rootstock the same width as the scion and
below the injury to be repaired. Gently fold the flap away from
the stock, being careful not to tear the bark flap.
Inserting the Scion.
First,
insert and secure the scion below the injury; push the scion
under the flap with the cut portion of the scion against the
wood of the injured stem or trunk. Then go back and insert and
secure the scion above the injury following these same steps.
Push the scion firmly into place. Pull the flap over the scion
and tack it into place as described for bark grafting (Figure
3).
When
grafting with young stems that may waver in the wind, insert the
scions so that they bow outward slightly. Bridge grafts should
be spaced about 3 to 4 inches apart across the damaged area
Securing the Graft.
Secure all graft areas with warm grafting wax or grafting paint.
During and after the healing period, remove any buds or shoots
that develop on the scions.
Inarch Graft
Inarching, like bridge grafting, is used to bypass or support a
damaged or weakened area of a plant stem (Figure 9). Unlike
bridge grafting, the scion can be an existing shoot, sucker, or
water sprout that is already growing below and extending above
the injury. The scion may also be a shoot of the same species as
the injured plant growing on its own root system next to the
main trunk of the damaged tree. With the inarching technique,
the tip of the scion is grafted in above the injury using the
same method as for bark or bridge grafting.
Figure 9.
Inarch graft.
In
Conclusion
Grafting collected scions
(most apple tree owners/ orchard growers will usually gladly
give you a bit of scion wood if you ask for it in winter) on to
your own rootstock is a VERY cost effective way of building up a
collection of fruit trees. Rootstocks cost about £2.00 each -
and don't forget you can graft a few different variety scions on
to each rootstock!
Something you should also
consider is saving the disappearing "heirloom" varieties from
the UK. There are over 1200 native apples for eating, cooking,
as well as for cider making and crab apples for pickling. They
have enchanting names: Acklam Russets, Barnack Beauty, Nutmeg
Pippin, Knobby Russet…and many more. Despite this, most growers
concentrate on a few commercially proven varieties, leaving us
with little choice. Worldwide it's estimated there are 7,500
varieties.
Supermarkets stock
approximately 30 varieties - in TOTAL - between them! The
criteria for variety selection? Uniform size/ shape & colour.
Freshness and variety of flavour is NOT a consideration.
It is estimated that each
fruit is sprayed approximately 18 times with herbicide and
insecticide poisons. They are further sprayed with hormones to
aid storage and induce ripening at a set time (they are
harvested before they are ripe).
Most of
them are flown in from places like South Africa, New Zealand &
Australia in the southern hemisphere, using vast amounts of fuel
and causing huge amounts of pollution. By the time they reach
your fruit bowl they already have a huge carbon footprint.
Our native varieties
are disappearing. Others are disappearing the world over. I
challenge you to argue that is sensible or sustainable.
Bring
some sanity back into our lives and grow your own - for
yourself, your grandchildren & great grandchildren - because
apple trees can easily produce fruit for at least three
generations. So get grafting!
|
You'll notice that I've
revamped the look of our newsletter. Also, with the
implementation of a new programming script that I've used on our
Gardeners Chat-Shed web-site, I can now mass mail-out to not just
the Gardeners Chat-Shed members, but to ALL the registered members on
both web-sites - including our
Aeron Vale Allotment Society site! You can click on the
logos above if you haven't yet viewed the two web-sites. 
Got your Spuds
in yet?
I've
got six forty foot rows again this year. As usual I'm
growing quite a wide selection (I love comparing - I do the same
with runner beans). My selection includes two regular
favourites Charlotte & Pink Fir Apple. The others will be
Winston (first early) a RHS Award of Garden merit (AGM) winner,
Kestrel a show bench variety with exceptional flavour. The other
two main crop varieties are Markies (an improved Maris Piper
type that I haven't tried before) and an old heavy cropping and
quite disease resistant favourite amongst allotment growers -
Picasso.
symmetry of the
traditional weed-free allotment veggie garden. As opposed to
some modern uncultivated, "no dig" & "no work" Steptoe's Yard
plots that we sometimes see!
All
tree-huggers, eco warriors, planet savers and new age weed gardeners
who are offended by this statement - you have a recourse. You
can simply
enter your name & address on a postcard (or back of a fag
packet) to register your
complaints - using no more than six words please. Then
post it to this correspondent.
Thank you! 
Rhubarb,
of which here are approximately 60 species, originates around Siberia, and grows freely along the banks of the
Volga, so it is a very hardy, frost resistant plant - in fact it
needs a period of hard frost in the winter to produce the best
stalks.
ANTS
APHIDS 
BEES
CAPSID
BUG
CATERPILLARS
CENTIPEDES
EARWIGS
FUNGUS GNATS
GROUND BEETLES
HOVERFLIES
LACEWING
LADYBIRD
MILLIPEDES
SNAILS AND SLUGS
SPIDERS
WASPS 
WHITEFLY
WOODLICE
Ideal
for clearing long cut grass and other vegetation
following scything and cutting. Also good for
clearing vegetation from ditches, ponds & even
canals. Effective too for breaking up round straw
bales!
My
earliest recollection of using a cramp was with my
father when I was a lad in primary school. In the
autumn we would load up a converted horse cart with
farm yard manure, cart-full after cart-full would be
taken to the fields where it would be dragged off
into heaps to be spread later by hand using a
muck-fork. A converted horse cart was particularly useful
because it could be manually tipped in increments.
In those days many smaller farms used converted
horse drawn implements - including carts. The shafts
were removed and replaced with a towing pole with a
jaw on it that attached to the draw bar of the
tractor - usually an old Fordson - many of which had
been imported by Henry Ford from America to help the
war effort in this country. Every land army girl
knew how to drive a Fordson!. So did we as boys -
usually from the age of about seven or eight. As
soon as you were strong and heavy enough to press
down the one pedal that doubled up as a clutch and
brake, you were promoted to the job of driving the
tractor! Especially for tedious tasks like moving
the tractor and trailer from one hay muddle to
another whilst the men pitched it on to the hay
cart. The other not so nice job of stop/ starting -
often by moonlight - was done on a cold October
night, whist your father pulled down heaps of muck
at the back, using a cramp.
Cromes
or cramps are also used for ponds and for wetland
work and are somewhere between a rake and a muck
fork. They are also sometimes called a long draw
fork. 
